The Acropolis of Athens is one of the most famous ancient archaeological sites in the world. Located on a limestone hill high above Athens, Greece, the Acropolis has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Over the centuries, the Acropolis was many things: a home to kings, a citadel, a mythical home of the gods, a religious center and a tourist attraction. It has withstood bombardment, massive earthquakes and vandalism yet still stands as a reminder of the rich history of Greece. Today, it is a cultural UNESCO World Heritage site and home to several temples, the most famous of which is the Parthenon.
But what are some of the challenges that this iconic site has faced throughout its long history? How did it survive the ravages of time and human interference? And what are the current threats and opportunities for its preservation and restoration? In this blog post, we will explore some of the major challenges that the Acropolis has faced and how they have been overcome or addressed.
The Persian Invasion
One of the earliest and most devastating challenges that the Acropolis faced was the invasion of the Persian Empire in the fifth century B.C. The Persians were a powerful and expansionist empire that ruled over much of Asia and parts of Africa and Europe. They had already conquered most of Greece’s neighboring regions and were determined to subjugate Athens and its allies.
In 490 B.C., the Persians landed at Marathon, a plain near Athens, and faced a smaller but determined army of Athenians and their allies. The Greeks managed to defeat the Persians in a decisive battle that is considered one of the most important in history. The victory boosted the morale and confidence of the Greeks and inspired them to rebuild their city and its monuments, including the Acropolis.
However, the Persians were not done with Greece. Ten years later, they returned with a much larger and stronger army led by King Xerxes himself. They swept through northern Greece and reached Athens, which had been evacuated by its inhabitants. The Persians then proceeded to burn, level and loot the Acropolis and almost every other structure in the city. They destroyed many temples, statues and treasures that had been built or dedicated to the gods, especially Athena, the patron goddess of Athens.
The destruction of the Acropolis was a huge blow to the Athenians, who considered it their sacred and symbolic center. It also enraged them and motivated them to fight back against the Persians with more vigor and determination. The Greeks eventually managed to repel the Persians in a series of naval and land battles at Salamis, Plataea and Mycale. The Persian invasion was over, but the Acropolis was in ruins.
The Golden Age of Pericles
After the Persian invasion, Athens emerged as a leading city-state in Greece and a center of culture, democracy and philosophy. It also entered a period of prosperity and peace known as the Golden Age of Athens (460 B.C. to 430 B.C.) under the rule of Pericles, a statesman and general who had a vision for rebuilding and beautifying his city.
Pericles initiated an ambitious project to restore and reconstruct the Acropolis as a tribute to Athena and a symbol of Athenian glory. He hired some of the best architects, sculptors and craftsmen of his time to work on his project, which included several new temples, monuments and sculptures. The most famous of these was the Parthenon, a massive marble temple dedicated to Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin). The Parthenon was considered the masterpiece of classical Greek architecture and art, featuring exquisite sculptures, friezes and metopes depicting scenes from Greek mythology and history.
Other notable structures that were built or renovated during this period were:
- The Propylaea, a monumental gateway that served as the main entrance to the Acropolis.
- The Erechtheion, a temple that housed several cults and shrines, including those of Athena Polias (Athena of
the City), Poseidon Erechtheus (the god of the sea) and Kekrops (the mythical founder-king of Athens). - The Temple of Athena Nike (Athena Victory), a small temple that celebrated Athens’ victories over its enemies.
- The Statue of Athena Promachos (Athena who Fights in Front), a colossal bronze statue that stood between
the Parthenon and the Propylaea and was visible from afar.
The Golden Age of Pericles was also a time of cultural and intellectual flourishing in Athens. Many famous philosophers, writers, artists and scientists lived and worked in the city, such as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Sophocles, Euripides, Herodotus and Thucydides. They contributed to the development of various fields of knowledge, such as ethics, politics, history, drama, poetry and science.
However, the Golden Age of Pericles did not last long. In 431 B.C., Athens entered a long and costly war with its rival city-state Sparta and its allies, known as the Peloponnesian War. The war lasted for 27 years and ended with the defeat and humiliation of Athens. The Acropolis suffered some damage during the war, but it remained intact and continued to function as a religious and civic center.
The Roman Occupation
In the fourth century B.C., Greece came under the influence and domination of the Macedonian kings, who expanded their empire to include most of the ancient world. The most famous of these kings was Alexander the Great, who conquered Persia, Egypt and parts of Asia. Alexander admired Greek culture and respected the Acropolis as a sacred site. He even offered to rebuild the Temple of Athena Nike, which had been destroyed by the Persians, but the Athenians declined his offer.
After Alexander’s death in 323 B.C., his empire was divided among his generals, who fought each other for control. Greece became a battleground for their wars and was eventually conquered by the Romans in 146 B.C. The Romans were also admirers of Greek culture and treated the Acropolis with reverence. They restored some of the damaged buildings and added some new ones, such as an odeon (a theater for music and poetry) and a temple dedicated to Roma (the personification of Rome) and Augustus (the first Roman emperor).
The Romans also brought some changes to the religious practices at the Acropolis. They identified some of the Greek gods with their own gods and introduced new cults and festivals. For example, they associated Athena with Minerva, their goddess of wisdom and war, and celebrated her birthday on March 19. They also introduced the cult of Dionysus, the god of wine and theater, and held annual competitions for drama and comedy at the theater of Dionysus at the foot of the Acropolis.
The Roman occupation of Greece lasted for several centuries, until the decline and fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century A.D. During this time, the Acropolis remained an important religious and cultural site, but it also faced some challenges from natural disasters, such as earthquakes and fires, as well as from human interference, such as looting and vandalism.
The Byzantine Era
In the fifth century A.D., Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, which had split into two parts: the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as Byzantium). The Byzantine Empire continued to rule over Greece until the 15th century A.D., when it was conquered by the Ottoman Turks.
The Byzantines were not fond of pagan temples and idols, so they converted some of them into Christian churches or destroyed them altogether. The Parthenon was transformed into a church dedicated to Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ. The Erechtheion was converted into a church dedicated to George, a Christian martyr and saint. The Temple of Athena Nike was demolished to make room for a bastion (a defensive structure).
The Byzantines also changed the name of the Acropolis from “the high city” to “the castle” or “the fortress”, reflecting its new role as a military stronghold. They built walls and towers around it to protect it from invaders. They also used some of the marble blocks from
the ancient buildings to repair or construct new ones.
The Byzantine era was a time of political instability and social decline in Greece. The Acropolis faced many threats from foreign enemies, such as Slavs, Arabs, Normans, Crusaders and Turks. It also suffered from internal conflicts between rival factions and families. It was besieged,
captured, looted and damaged several times during this period.
The Ottoman Rule
In 1458 A.D., Athens fell under the rule of the Ottoman Turks, who had conquered most of Byzantium. The Ottomans were Muslims who tolerated other religions but imposed taxes and restrictions on them. They allowed some Christians to continue using their churches at
the Acropolis, but they also converted some of them into mosques or storage rooms.
The Parthenon was turned into a mosque with a minaret (a tower for calling to prayer). The Propylaea was used as a residence for the Turkish governor. The Erechtheion was used as a harem (a secluded area for women). The.
